Abusive messages, personal threats, criticism of appearance or being shouted at in the street are among the examples of abuse experienced by women in journalism, according to a new report.
The report entitled "Social Media and Online Hostility" follows research carried out by Dr Dawn Wheatley of Dublin City University.
Thirty-six national-level female journalists were interviewed as well as 40 student journalists.
The report found that social media is an essential part of most journalists' day-to-day work, used to observe people's stories and gauge public opinion as well as promote their own work and that of their organisation.
Therefore most reporters felt they could not do their job without it so could not simply disconnect if experiencing problems online.
However, the negative experiences of those interviewed ranged on a spectrum from minor critiques, to sexualised comments, to outright threats and concerns for their physical safety when the online harassment crossed into "real life".
One respondent said that while men might face criticism for their political views, a woman's background, expertise and appearance tends to be continually dragged into the response and more sexualised language used.
Broadcasters attracted continuous negative attention, while those most vocal online also came in for heavy criticism.
Journalists who reported on certain topics, such as politics or social justice, faced heightened reactions.
Blurred boundaries around working conditions were also a concern with many journalists feeling unable to switch off outside working hours.
Speaking ahead of the launch, Dr Dawn Wheatley said the influence of online culture and negative interactions could be a deterrent to women seeking work in journalism.
She said: "Women have historically been underrepresented in Irish journalism in numbers and seniority of roles. There has been some improvement in recent decades, but the influence of online culture and negative interactions could be a deterrent, causing a regression in women's voices, presence, and influence in journalism.
"This silencing effect is worrying for anyone concerned about women in media, let alone their broader participation in society."
However, despite the negative experiences the journalists remained broadly committed to their choice of career.
The report says that employers are encouraged to be proactive and prepare staff for negativity online and to ensure clear support and pathways are in place in newsrooms when issues arrive.
The journalists interviewed came from national publications including RTÉ, Virgin Media, BBC Northern Ireland, The Irish Times, the Irish Independent, The Journal.ie, The Irish Daily Mail/Irish Mail on Sunday, the Irish Examiner, the Irish Mirror, The Times Ireland/Sunday Times and the Sunday World.
